Paramount vs. Tantamount

Foremost versus Commensurate Foremost versus Commensurate Foremost versus Commensurate By Mark Nichol What’s the contrast among principal and commensurate? The differentiation is of vital significance; it’s commensurate to being correct or wrong. Fundamental, from the Anglo-French word paramont, got from the Latin expression per advertisement montem, actually deciphered as â€Å"up the mountain,† implies â€Å"supreme.† It’s likewise utilized (once in a while) as a thing to allude to an incomparable ruler. Commensurate was initially a thing, converted into English from the Anglo-French expression tant amunter, which means â€Å"to sum to as much,† and means â€Å"equivalent.† It is only here and there utilized more’s the pity, since it is such a great word in such expressions as â€Å"tantamount to treason.† This pomposity, and the word’s similarity to principal, may deceive essayists into accepting it has a grand sense like its partner. As you would have speculated, the thing sum, which means â€Å"sum,† additionally gets from the Latin word for mountain. Another word with the component - sum is catamount, an almost out of date equivalent word for cougar or lynx that is a pressure of the term feline a-mountain. Shut compound action words with the root word mount incorporate descent (â€Å"remove oneself from a high situation, as a pony or a bit of gymnastic equipment,† or â€Å"take apart†) demount is a once in a while utilized variation remount (â€Å"get up on again,† or â€Å"revert†), and conquer (â€Å"climb,† â€Å"excel,† or â€Å"overcome,† or â€Å"be at the top of†). Seamount is a thing alluding to a submerged mountain whose highest point doesn't arrive adrift level. (In the event that it did, it would be called an island.) Dismount and remount additionally have thing structures; the previous alludes to the finishing up development in an acrobatic daily schedule, and the last signifies a pony that replaces a rider’s past one. A fascinating side note: In arrow based weaponry, â€Å"lord paramount† and â€Å"lady paramount† are terms for an authority responsible for a bows and arrows competition, or for a stately pioneer of such an occasion, proportionate to a motorcade fabulous marshal. The terms began in the medieval time, when a ruler vital, one not subordinate to an individual from the honorability of more noteworthy position, was required to give prepared longbowmen in case of war, and directed at bows and arrows competitions. (The title â€Å"lord paramount† is known to enthusiasts of the TV arrangement A Game of Thrones and the arrangement of books on which it is based.) Need to improve your English in a short time a day? Get a membership and begin getting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Misused Words classification, check our well known posts, or pick a related post below:70 Idioms with HeartReplacement for and substitution ofWood versus Wooden

Renaissance Art And Culture Essay Paper Example For Students

Renaissance Art And Culture Essay Paper The word Renaissance is a French word that implies Re-birth. Renaissance was a social development that secured the period around from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. Renaissance started in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spread to the remainder of Europe. As a social development, it secured creative opening of Latin and vernacular writings. In governmental issues, the Renaissance contributed the improvement of the arrangements of tact, and in science an expanded conviction on perception. Despite the fact that the Renaissance saw insurgencies in numerous scholarly exercises, just as social and political disarray, it is maybe most popular for its aesthetic turns of events. Leonardo father Vinci and Michelangelo were motivated by the term Renaissance man. Renaissance impact was felt in writing, theory, workmanship, music, legislative issues, science, religion, and different parts of scholarly examination. Renaissance researchers utilized the humanist strategy in study, and scanned for authenticity and human feeling in craftsmanship. The civic establishments of Greece and Rome were rediscovered, rousing an enthusiasm for Old style realizing which tested medieval convictions and thoughts. The populace was turning out to be wealthier which prompted an expansion in exchange and travel and the spread of new thoughts. The ascent in success likewise produced an enthusiasm for instruction, bolstered the prospering of expressions of the human experience and advanced logical disclosures and new innovations. Maybe the most significant of these was the print machine, which permitted the dissemination of data to an a lot more extensive crowd than any time in recent memory, further expanding the interest for more knowledgeRenaissance was considerably more than a resurrection of traditional workmanship. It was a dismissal of the medieval times, which were Just completion. During medieval occasions, human expressions were concerned basically with religion, with the life of the soul, with the great beyond. Little significance was given to life on earth with the exception of as a groundwork for the following scene. Be that as it may, as the 1 fifth century started, Italians were directing their concentration toward the world about them. Individuals began to contemplate nonstructural, or nonreligious, matters. They started putting confidence in their own characteristics and their own significance. Control, unquestioning confidence, dutifulness to authoritythese medieval advantages were o longer aimlessly acknowledged. Individuals posed inquiries and needed to locate their own answers. Craftsmen were among the primary influenced by the new soul of humanism. In their work they started to concentrate on human life on earth. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ART The Italian Renaissance was one of the most beneficial periods throughout the entire existence of craftsmanship, with huge quantities of exceptional experts to be found in numerous focuses and in all the significant fields painting, figure, and design. In Florence, in the primary portion of the fifteenth century, there were extraordinary pioneers in every one of these fields, whose work raked a start off new time throughout the entire existence of craftsmanship. The possibility of masterful virtuoso got well known; Michelangelo was called divine due to the enormity of his imaginative forces. In the Renaissance, workmanship and science were firmly associated. Both the craftsman and the researcher took a stab at the dominance of the physical world, and the specialty of painting benefitted by two fields of study that might be called logical: life systems, which made conceivable a progressively precise portrayal of the human body, and scientific viewpoint. Humanistic instruction, in light of morals and the aesthetic sciences, was pushed s an approach to make experienced residents who could effectively partake in the political procedure. Humanists praised the brain, excellence, power, and gigantic capability of people. They accepted that individuals had the option to encounter God legitimately and ought to have an individual, passionate relationship to their confidence. God had made the world yet people had the option to partake in his wonder by turning out to be makers themselves. Effect ON PAINTING The work of art in France was known as Florentine painting. The procedures supported by the Florentine were gum based paint and fresco. The Tempera Painting: In gum based paint painting a dry surface was utilized. A wooden board was grounded with a few layers of mortar in stick, and the work was then replicated from a drawing.

Skipping the Drama of Payday Loans - To Payday or Not to Payday (1 of 3)

Skipping the Drama of Payday Loans - To Payday or Not to Payday (1 of 3) To Payday or Not to Payday? (1 of 3) Skipping the Drama of Payday Loans To Payday or Not to Payday? (1 of 3) Skipping the Drama of Payday LoansWho doesn’t love good dramatic theater? The music, conflict, romance and comedy that happens once those stage curtains go up is enough get to anyone excited. But there’s one type of drama everyone should skip: Payday Loans.Everyone needs money (and help) from time to time. But when you find yourself in need, ask yourself: Is a payday loan what you need, or is it what you really need to avoid?Here are the top three reasons you should dodge the drama of a payday loan:1. They’re a trapPayday loans are predatory loans. This means that the lenders are 100% out to get repeat business out of you. That’s how they make profits! It’s all a ruse, really. A well-crafted ruse perhaps, but a ruse all the same (read more in our Blog How to Avoid a Payday Loan: Savings Strategies).Here’s how they work: let’s say you take out a payday loan to cover a monthly expense (a Pew Charitable Trusts study found that 69% of p ayday loan users took out their first loan to pay for a recurring expense, while only 16% used the money for an unexpected emergency expense).1 So you take out a payday loan to cover, say, your electricity bill.You use the loan to pay the bill, everything is going great. Then your payday comes up and the payday lender pulls the money you borrowed (plus their cut) from your checking account. After the high interest rates and fees, the money you’re left with isn’t even close to enough to afford rent. So what do you do? Well, you go back to the lender and take out another loan. Repeat this pattern 10 times in a year and you’ve got the average scenario for a payday loan borrower.2. These lenders lieWhen faced with criticism from the public, the media, or legislators, the payday lenders all read their lines from the same script: “We provide a short-term solution for people facing unexpected emergency expenses!” (Seriously, you can look up any interview. They all say this, pract ically verbatim.) If payday lenders and their advertising told the truth, we would be getting a much different story.These loans are used by people to cover ordinary expenses. They are not short-term solutions, due to high interest rates and rollover allowances. The average borrower is in debt with payday loans five months out of the year, not 14 days like they want you to believe. We’re still looking for a time when it might be a good idea to take out a payday loan. We haven’t found it yet.3. Everyone knows they’re bad (even the regulators)Payday lending is facing tough new regulation and for good reason. Small-dollar loans that carry impossibly high interest are currently banned in eighteen states and the District of Columbia. New regulatory agencies like the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau are fighting to curtail this $46 billion dollar industry that is known to target low-income areas.While the industry and the regulators battle it out, payday lenders are using decept ive advertising and difficult, complex contracts to hide the truth that they are, as one expert put it, “toxic… the leading cause of bankruptcy behind medical and credit card debt.”2So, if the question is “To payday or not to payday?”, the answer is pretty clear: Never.If you do need financial help, don’t payday. Consider a safe, credit-building installment loan. OppLoans helps people escape payday loans every day. Our personal installment loans come with longer terms and lower interest. You deserve better than a payday loan.References:1. “Payday Lending in America: Who Borrows, Where They Borrow, and Why” Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Accessed May 13, 2016. href=https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/projects/small-dollar-loans-research-project2. “Payday Loan Rules Proposed by Consumer Protection Agency.” NewYorkTimes.com. Accessed May 13, 2016. href=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/27/business/dealbook/consumer-protection-agency-pro poses-rules-on-payday-loans.html?_r=0Blog Series: To Payday or Not to PaydayPart 1: Skipping the Drama of Payday LoansPart 2: Predatory Lending’s Second ActPart 3: The Final Act

Skipping the Drama of Payday Loans - To Payday or Not to Payday (1 of 3)

Skipping the Drama of Payday Loans - To Payday or Not to Payday (1 of 3) To Payday or Not to Payday? (1 of 3) Skipping the Drama of Payday Loans To Payday or Not to Payday? (1 of 3) Skipping the Drama of Payday LoansWho doesn’t love good dramatic theater? The music, conflict, romance and comedy that happens once those stage curtains go up is enough get to anyone excited. But there’s one type of drama everyone should skip: Payday Loans.Everyone needs money (and help) from time to time. But when you find yourself in need, ask yourself: Is a payday loan what you need, or is it what you really need to avoid?Here are the top three reasons you should dodge the drama of a payday loan:1. They’re a trapPayday loans are predatory loans. This means that the lenders are 100% out to get repeat business out of you. That’s how they make profits! It’s all a ruse, really. A well-crafted ruse perhaps, but a ruse all the same (read more in our Blog How to Avoid a Payday Loan: Savings Strategies).Here’s how they work: let’s say you take out a payday loan to cover a monthly expense (a Pew Charitable Trusts study found that 69% of p ayday loan users took out their first loan to pay for a recurring expense, while only 16% used the money for an unexpected emergency expense).1 So you take out a payday loan to cover, say, your electricity bill.You use the loan to pay the bill, everything is going great. Then your payday comes up and the payday lender pulls the money you borrowed (plus their cut) from your checking account. After the high interest rates and fees, the money you’re left with isn’t even close to enough to afford rent. So what do you do? Well, you go back to the lender and take out another loan. Repeat this pattern 10 times in a year and you’ve got the average scenario for a payday loan borrower.2. These lenders lieWhen faced with criticism from the public, the media, or legislators, the payday lenders all read their lines from the same script: “We provide a short-term solution for people facing unexpected emergency expenses!” (Seriously, you can look up any interview. They all say this, pract ically verbatim.) If payday lenders and their advertising told the truth, we would be getting a much different story.These loans are used by people to cover ordinary expenses. They are not short-term solutions, due to high interest rates and rollover allowances. The average borrower is in debt with payday loans five months out of the year, not 14 days like they want you to believe. We’re still looking for a time when it might be a good idea to take out a payday loan. We haven’t found it yet.3. Everyone knows they’re bad (even the regulators)Payday lending is facing tough new regulation and for good reason. Small-dollar loans that carry impossibly high interest are currently banned in eighteen states and the District of Columbia. New regulatory agencies like the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau are fighting to curtail this $46 billion dollar industry that is known to target low-income areas.While the industry and the regulators battle it out, payday lenders are using decept ive advertising and difficult, complex contracts to hide the truth that they are, as one expert put it, “toxic… the leading cause of bankruptcy behind medical and credit card debt.”2So, if the question is “To payday or not to payday?”, the answer is pretty clear: Never.If you do need financial help, don’t payday. Consider a safe, credit-building installment loan. OppLoans helps people escape payday loans every day. Our personal installment loans come with longer terms and lower interest. You deserve better than a payday loan.References:1. “Payday Lending in America: Who Borrows, Where They Borrow, and Why” Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Accessed May 13, 2016. href=https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/projects/small-dollar-loans-research-project2. “Payday Loan Rules Proposed by Consumer Protection Agency.” NewYorkTimes.com. Accessed May 13, 2016. href=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/27/business/dealbook/consumer-protection-agency-pro poses-rules-on-payday-loans.html?_r=0Blog Series: To Payday or Not to PaydayPart 1: Skipping the Drama of Payday LoansPart 2: Predatory Lending’s Second ActPart 3: The Final Act

Learn to Calculate Percent Change

Percent increase and decrease are the two types of percent change, which is used to express the ratio of how an initial value compares to the result of a change in value. A percent decrease is a ratio that describes a decline in value of something by a specific rate, while a percent increase is a ratio that describes an increase in the value of something by a specific rate. The easiest way to determine whether a percent change is an increase or a decrease is to calculate the difference between the original value and the remaining value to find the change then divide the change by the original value and multiply the result by 100 to get a percentage. If the resulting number is positive, the change is a percent increase, but if it is negative, the change is a percent decrease. Percent change is highly useful in the real world, for example,  allowing you to calculate  the difference  in the  number of customers who come into  your store daily or to determine  how much money you’d save on a 20-percent-off sale. How to Calculate Percent Change   Suppose the original price for a bag of apples is $3. On Tuesday, the bag of apples sells for $1.80. What is the percent decrease? Note that you would not find the difference between $3 and $1.80 yielding and answer of $1.20, which is the difference in price. Instead, since the cost of the apples has decreased, use this formula to find the percent decrease: Percent decrease (Older – Newer) à · Older. (3 – 1.80) à · 3 .40 40 percent Note how you convert a decimal into a percent by moving the decimal point twice to the right and tacking on the word percent after that number. How to Use Percent Change to Alter Values In other situations, the percent decrease or increase is known, but the newer value is not. This may occur at department stores that are putting clothing on sale but don’t want to advertise the new price or on coupons for goods whose prices vary. Take, for example, a bargain store selling a laptop for $600, while an electronics store nearby promises to beat the price of any competitor by 20 percent. You would clearly want to choose the electronics store, but how much would you save? To calculate this, multiply the original number ($600) by the percent change (0.20) to get the amount discounted ($120). To figure out the new total, subtract the discount amount from the original number to see that you would only be spending $480 at the electronics store. In another example of altering a value, suppose a dress regularly sells for $150. A green tag, marked 40 percent off, is attached to the dress. Calculate the discount as follows: 0.40 x $150 $60 Calculate the sales price  by subtracting the amount you save from the original price: $150 - $60 $90 Exercises With Answers and Explanations Test your skills in finding percent change with the following examples: 1) You see a carton of ice cream that originally sold for $4 now selling for $3.50. Determine the percent change in the price. Original price: $4Current price: $3.50Percent decrease (Older – Newer) à · Older(4.00 - 3.50) à · 4.000.50 à · 4.00 .125 12.5 percent decrease So the  percent decrease is  12.5 percent. 2) You walk to the dairy section and see that the price of a bag of shredded cheese has been reduced from $2.50 to $1.25. Calculate the percent change. Original price: $2.50Current price: $1.25Percent decrease (Older – Newer) à · Older(2.50 - 1.25) à · 2.501.25 à · 2.50 0.50 50 percent decrease So, you have a percent decrease of  50 percent. 3) Now, youre thirsty and see a special on bottled water. Three bottles that used to sell for $1 are now selling for $0.75. Determine the percent change. Original:  $1Current:  $0.75Percent decrease (Older – Newer) à · Older(1.00 - 0.75) à · 1.000.25 à · 1.00 .25 25 percent decrease You have a percent decrease of 25 percent. Youre feeling like a thrifty shopper, but you want to determine the altered values in your next three items. So, calculate the discount, in dollars, for the items in exercises four through six. 4.) A box of frozen fish sticks was $4. This week, it is discounted 33 percent off the original price. Discount: 33 percent x $4 0.33 x $4 $1.32 5.) A lemon pound cake originally cost $6. This week, it is discounted 20 percent off the original price. Discount: 20 percent x $6 0.20 x $6 $1.20 6.) A Halloween costume usually sells for $30. The discount rate is 60 percent. Discount: 60 percent x $30 0.60 x $30 $18

American Civil War

Second Foundation 9. The Conspirators Free Essays

For Dr. Darell and Pelleas Anthor, the evenings passed in friendly intercourse; the days in pleasant unimportance. It might have been an ordinary visit. We will write a custom essay sample on Second Foundation 9. The Conspirators or any similar topic only for you Order Now Dr. Darell introduced the young man as a cousin from across space, and interest was dulled by the clich. Somehow, however, among the small talk, a name might be mentioned. There would be an easy thoughtfulness. Dr. Darell might say, â€Å"No,† or he might say, â€Å"Yes.† A call on the open Communi-wave issued a casual invitation, â€Å"Want you to meet my cousin.† And Arcadia’s preparations proceeded in their own manner. In fact, her actions might be considered the least straightforward of all. For instance, she induced Olynthus Dam at school to donate to her a home-built, self-contained sound-receiver by methods which indicated a future for her that promised peril to all males with whom she might come into contact. To avoid details, she merely exhibited such an interest in Olynthus’ self-publicized hobby – he had a home workshop-combined with such a well-modulated transfer of this interest to Olynthus’ own pudgy features, that the unfortunate youth found himself: 1) discoursing at great and animated length upon the principles of the hyperwave motor; 2) becoming dizzyingly aware of the great, absorbed eyes that rested so lightly upon his; and 3) forcing into her willing hands his own greatest creation, the aforesaid sound-receiver. Arcadia cultivated Olynthus in diminishing degree thereafter for just long enough to remove all suspicion that the sound-receiver had been the cause of the friendship. For months afterwards, Olynthus felt the memory of that short period in his life over and over again with the tendrils of his mind, until finally, for lack of further addition, he gave up and let it slip away. When the seventh evening came, and five men sat in the Darell living room with food within and tobacco without, Arcadia’s desk upstairs was occupied by this quite unrecognizable home-product of Olynthus’ ingenuity. Five men then. Dr. Darell, of course, with graying hair and meticulous clothing, looking somewhat older than his forty-two years. Pelleas Author, serious and quick-eyed at the moment looking young and unsure of himself. And the three new men: Jole Turbor, visicastor, bulky and plump-lipped; Dr. Elvett Semic, professor-emeritus of physics at the University, scrawny and wrinkled, his clothes only half-filled; Homir Munn, librarian, lanky and terribly ill-at-ease. Dr. Darell spoke easily, in a normal, matter-of-fact tone: â€Å"This gathering has been arranged, gentlemen, for a trifle more than merely social reasons. You may have guessed this. Since you have been deliberately chosen because of your backgrounds, you may also guess the danger involved. I won’t minimize it, but I will point out that we are all condemned men, in any case. â€Å"You will notice that none of you have been invited with any attempt at secrecy. None of you have been asked to come here unseen. The windows are not adjusted to non-insight. No screen of any sort is about the room. We have only to attract the attention of the enemy to be ruined; and the best way to attract that attention is to assume a false and theatrical secrecy. (Hah, thought Arcadia, bending over the voices coming – a bit screechily – out of the little box.) â€Å"Do you understand that?† Elvett Semic twitched his lower lip and bared his teeth in the screwup, wrinkled gesture that preceded his every sentence. â€Å"Oh, get on with it. Tell us about the youngster.† Dr. Darell said, â€Å"Pelleas Anthor is his name. He was a student of my old colleague, Kleise, who died last year. Kleise sent me his brain-pattern to the fifth sublevel, before he died, which pattern has been now checked against that of the man before you. You know, of course, that a brain-pattern cannot be duplicated that far, even by men of the Science of Psychology. If you don’t know that, you’ll have to take my word for it.† Turbor said, purse-lipped, â€Å"We might as well make a beginning somewheres. We’ll take your word for it, especially since you’re the greatest electroneurologist in the Galaxy now that Kleise is dead. At least, that is the way I’ve described you in my visicast comment, and I even believe it myself. How old are you, Anthor?† â€Å"Twenty-nine, Mr. Turbor.† â€Å"Hm-m-m. And are you an electroneurologist, too? A great one?† â€Å"Just a student of the science. But I work hard, and I’ve had the benefit of Kleise’s training.† Munn broke in. He had a slight stammer at periods of tension. â€Å"I†¦ I wish you’d g†¦ get started. I think everyone’s t†¦ talking too much.† Dr. Darell lifted an eyebrow in Munn’s direction. you’re right, Homir. Take over, Pelleas.† â€Å"Not for a while,† said Pelleas Anthor, slowly, â€Å"because before we can get started – although I appreciate Mr. Munn’s sentiment – I must request brain-wave data.† Darell frowned. â€Å"What is this, Anthor? What brain-wave data do you refer to?† â€Å"The patterns of all of you. You have taken mine, Dr. Darell. I must take yours and those of the rest of you. And I must take the measurements myself.† Turbor said, â€Å"There’s no reason for him to trust us, Darell. The young man is within his rights.† â€Å"Thank you,† said Anthor. â€Å"If you’ll lead the way to your laboratory then, Dr. Darell, well proceed. I took the liberty this morning of checking your apparatus.† The science of electroencephalography was at once new and old. It was old in the sense that the knowledge of the microcurrents generated by nerve cells of living beings belonged to that immense category of human knowledge whose origin was completely lost. It was knowledge that stretched back as far as the earliest remnants of human history- And yet it was new, too. The fact of the existence of microcurrents slumbered through the tens of thousands of years of Galactic Empire as one of those vivid and whimsical, but quite useless, items of human knowledge. Some had attempted to form classifications of waves into waking and sleeping, calm and excited, well and ill – but even the broadest conceptions had had their hordes of vitiating exceptions. Others had tried to show the existence of brain-wave groups, analogous to the well-known blood groups, and to show that external environment was the defining factor. These were the race-minded people who claimed that Man could be divided into subspecies. But such a philosophy could make no headway against the overwhelming ecumenical drive involved in the fact of Galactic Empire – one political unit covering twenty million stellar systems, involving all of Man from the central world of Trantor – now a gorgeous and impossible memory of the great past – to the loneliest asteroid on the periphery. And then again, in a society given over, as that of the First Empire was, to the physical sciences and inanimate technology, there was a vague but mighty sociological push away from the study of the mind. It was less respectable because less immediately useful; and it was poorly financed since it was less profitable. After the disintegration of the First Empire, there came the fragmentation of organized science, back, back – past even the fundamentals of atomic power into the chemical power of coal and oil. The one exception to this, of course, was the First Foundation where the spark of science, revitalized and grown more intense was maintained and fed to flame. Yet there, too, it was the physical that ruled, and the brain, except for surgery, was neglected ground. Hari Seldon was the first to express what afterwards came to be accepted as truth. â€Å"Neural microcurrents,† he once said, â€Å"carry within them the spark of every varying impulse and response, conscious and unconscious. The brain-waves recorded on neatly squared paper in trembling peaks and troughs are the mirrors of the combined thought-pulses of billions of cells. Theoretically, analysis should reveal the thoughts and emotions of the subject, to the last and least. Differences should be detected that are due not only to gross physical defects, inherited or acquired, but also to shifting states of emotion, to advancing education and experience, even to something as subtle as a change in the subject’s philosophy of life.† But even Seldon could approach no further than speculation. And now for fifty years, the men of the First Foundation had been tearing at that incredibly vast and complicated storehouse of new knowledge. The approach, naturally, was made through new techniques – as, for example, the use of electrodes at skull sutures by a newly-developed means which enabled contact to be made directly with the gray cells, without even the necessity of shaving a patch of skull. And then there was a recording device which automatically recorded the brain-wave data as an overall total, and as separate functions of six independent variables. What was most significant, perhaps, was the growing respect in which encephalography and the encephalographer was held. Kleise, the greatest of them, sat at scientific conventions on an equal basis with the physicist. Dr. Darell, though no longer active in the science, was known for his brilliant advances in encephalographic analysis almost as much as for the fact that he was the son of Bayta Darell, the great heroine of the past generation. And so now, Dr. Darell sat in his own chair, with the delicate touch of the feathery electrodes scarcely hinting at pressure upon his skull, while the vacuum-incased needles wavered to and fro. His back was to the recorder – otherwise, as was well known, the sight of the moving curves induced an unconscious effort to control them, with noticeable results – but he knew that the central dial was expressing the strongly rhythmic and little-varying Sigma curve, which was to be expected of his own powerful and disciplined mind. It would be strengthened and purified in the subsidiary dial dealing with the Cerebellar wave. There would be the sharp, near-discontinuous leaps from the frontal lobe, and the subdued shakiness from the subsurface regions with its narrow range of frequencies- He knew his own brain-wave pattern much as an artist might be perfectly aware of the color of his eyes. Pelleas Anthor made no comment when Darell rose from the reclining chair. The young man abstracted the seven recordings, glanced at them with the quick, all-embracing eyes of one who knows exactly what tiny facet of near-nothingness is being looked for. â€Å"If you don’t mind, Dr. Semic.† Semic’s age-yellowed face was serious. Electroencephalography was a science of his old age of which he knew little; an upstart that he faintly resented. He knew that he was old and that his wave-pattern would show it. The wrinkles on his face showed it, the stoop in his walk, the shaking of his hand – but they spoke only of his body. The brain-wave patterns might show that his mind was old, too. An embarrassing and unwarranted invasion of a man’s last protecting stronghold, his own mind. The electrodes were adjusted. The process did not hurt, of course, from beginning to end. There was just that tiny tingle, far below the threshold of sensation. And then came Turbor, who sat quietly and unemotionally through the fifteen minute process, and Munn, who jerked at the first touch of the electrodes and then spent the session rolling his eyes as though he wished he could turn them backwards and watch through a hole in his occiput. â€Å"And now-† said Darell, when all was done. â€Å"And now,† said Anthor, apologetically, â€Å"there is one more person in the house.† Darell, frowning, said: â€Å"My daughter?† ‘Yes. I suggested that she stay home tonight, if you’ll remember.† â€Å"For encephalographical analysis? What in the Galaxy for?† â€Å"I cannot proceed without it.† Darell shrugged and climbed the stairs. Arcadia, amply warned, had the sound-receiver off when he entered; then followed him down with mild obedience. It was the first time in her life – except for the taking of her basic mind pattern as an infant, for identification and registration purposes – that she found herself under the electrodes. â€Å"May I see,† she asked, when it was over, holding out her hand. Dr. Darell said, â€Å"You would not understand, Arcadia. Isn’t it time for you to go to bed?† â€Å"Yes, father,† she said, demurely. â€Å"Good night, all.† She ran up the stairs and plumped into bed with a minimum of basic preparation. With Olynthus’ sound-receiver propped beside her pillow, she felt like a character out of a book-film, and hugged every moment of it close to her chest in an ecstasy of â€Å"Spy-stuff.† The first words she heard were Anthor’s and they were: â€Å"The analyses, gentlemen, are all satisfactory. The child’s as well.† Child, she thought disgustedly, and bristled at Anthor in the darkness. Anthor had opened his briefcase now, and out of it, he took several dozen brain-wave records. They were not originals. Nor had the briefcase been fitted with an ordinary lock. Had the key been held in any hand other than his own, the contents thereof would have silently and instantly oxidized to an indecipherable ash. Once removed from the briefcase, the records did so anyway after half an hour. But during their short lifetime, Anthor spoke quickly. â€Å"I have the records here of several minor government officials at Anacreon. This is a psychologist at Locris University; this an industrialist at Siwenna. The rest are as you see.† They crowded closely. To all but Darell, they were so many quivers on parchment. To Darell, they shouted with a million tongues. Anthor pointed lightly, â€Å"I call your attention, Dr. Darell, to the plateau region among the secondary Tauian waves in the frontal lobe, which is what all these records have in common. Would you use my Analytical Rule, sir, to check my statement?† The Analytical Rule might be considered a distant relation – as a skyscraper is to a shack – of that kindergarten toy, the logarithmic Slide Rule. Darell used it with the wristflip of long practice. He made freehand drawings of the result and, as Anthor stated, there were featureless plateaus in frontal lobe regions where strong swings should have been expected. â€Å"How would you interpret that, Dr. Darell?† asked Anthor. â€Å"I’m not sure. Offhand, I don’t see how it’s possible. Even in cases of amnesia, there is suppression, but not removal. Drastic brain surgery, perhaps?† â€Å"Oh, something’s been cut out,† cried Anthor, impatiently, â€Å"yes! Not in the physical sense, however. You know, the Mule could have done just that. He could have suppressed completely all capacity for a certain emotion or attitude of mind, and leave nothing but just such a flatness. Or else-â€Å" â€Å"Or else the Second Foundation could have done it. Is that it?† asked Turbor, with a slow smile. There was no real need to answer that thoroughly rhetorical question. â€Å"What made you suspicious, Mr. Anthor?† asked Munn. â€Å"It wasn’t I. It was Dr. Kleise. He collected brain-wave patterns much as the Planetary Police do, but along different lines. He specialized in intellectuals, government officials and business leaders. You see, it’s quite obvious that if the Second Foundation is directing the historical course of the Galaxy – of us – that they must do it subtly and in as minimal a fashion as possible. If they work through minds, as they must, it is the minds of people with influence; culturally, industrially, or politically. And with those he concerned himself.† â€Å"Yes,† objected Munn, â€Å"but is there corroboration? How do these people act – I mean the ones with the plateau. Maybe it’s all a perfectly normal phenomenon.† He looked hopelessly at the others out of his, somehow, childlike blue eyes, but met no encouraging return. â€Å"I leave that to Dr. Darell,† said Anthor. â€Å"Ask him how many times he’s seen this phenomenon in his general studies, or in reported cases in the literature over the past generation. Then ask him the chances of it being discovered in almost one out of every thousand cases among the categories Dr. Kleise studied.† â€Å"I suppose that there is no doubt,† said Darell, thoughtfully, â€Å"that these are artificial mentalities. They have been tampered with. In a way, I have suspected this-â€Å" â€Å"I know that, Dr. Darell,† said Author. â€Å"I also know you once worked with Dr. Kleise. I would like to know why you stopped.† There wasn’t actually hostility in his question. Perhaps nothing more than caution; but, at any rate, it resulted in a long pause. Darell looked from one to another of his guests, then said brusquely, â€Å"Because there was no point to Kleise’s battle. He was competing with an adversary too strong for him. He was detecting what we – he and I – knew he would detect – that we were not our own masters. And I didn’t want to know! I had my self-respect. I liked to think that our Foundation was captain of its collective soul; that our forefathers had not quite fought and died for nothing. I thought it would be most simple to turn my face away as long as I was not quite sure. I didn’t need my position since the Government pension awarded to my mother’s family in perpetuity would take care of my uncomplicated needs. My home laboratory would suffice to keep boredom away, and life would some day end – Then Kleise died-â€Å" Semic showed his teeth and said: â€Å"This fellow Kleise; I don’t know him. How did he die?† Anthor cut in: â€Å"He died. He thought he would. He told me half a year before that he was getting too close-â€Å" â€Å"Now we’re too c†¦ close, too, aren’t we?† suggested Munn, dry-mouthed, as his Adam’s apple jiggled. â€Å"Yes,† said Anthor, flatly, â€Å"but we were, anyway – all of us. It’s why you’ve all been chosen. I’m Kleise’s student. Dr. Darell was his colleague. Jole Turbor has been denouncing our blind faith in the saving hand of the Second Foundation on the air, until the government shut him off – through the agency, I might mention, of a powerful financier whose brain shows what Kleise used to call the Tamper Plateau. Homir Munn has the largest home collection of Muliana – if I may use the phrase to signify collected data concerning the Mule – in existence, and has published some papers containing speculation on the nature and function of the Second Foundation. Dr. Semic has contributed as much as anyone to the mathematics of encephalographic analysis, though I don’t believe he realized that his mathematics could be so applied.† Semic opened his eyes wide and chuckled gaspingly, â€Å"No, young fellow. I was analyzing intranuclear motions – the n-body problem, you know. I’m lost in encephalography.† â€Å"Then we know where we stand. The government can, of course, do nothing about the matter. Whether the mayor or anyone in his administration is aware of the seriousness of the situation, I don’t know. But this I do know – we five have nothing to lose and stand to gain much. With every increase in our knowledge, we can widen ourselves in safe directions. We are but a beginning, you understand.† â€Å"How widespread,† put in Turbor, â€Å"is this Second Foundation infiltration?† â€Å"I don’t know. There’s a flat answer. All the infiltrations we have discovered were on the outer fringes of the nation. The capital world may yet be clean, though even that is not certain – else I would not have tested you. You were particularly suspicious, Dr. Darell, since you abandoned research with Kleise. Kleise never forgave you, you know. I thought that perhaps the Second Foundation had corrupted you, but Kleise always insisted that you were a coward. You’ll forgive me, Dr. Darell, if I explain this to make my own position clear. I, personally, think I understand your attitude, and, if it was cowardice, I consider it venial.† Darell drew a breath before replying. â€Å"I ran away! Call it what you wish. I tried to maintain our friendship, however, yet he never wrote nor called me until the day he sent me your brainwave data, and that was scarcely a week before he died-â€Å" â€Å"If you don’t mind,† interrupted Homir Munn, with a flash of nervous eloquence, â€Å"I d†¦ don’t see what you think you’re doing. We’re a p†¦ poor bunch of conspirators, if we’re just going to talk and talk and t†¦ talk. And I don’t see what else we can do, anyway. This is v†¦ very childish. B†¦ brain-waves and mumbo jumbo and all that. Is there just one thing you intend to do?† Pelleas Author’s eyes were bright, â€Å"Yes, there is. We need more information on the Second Foundation. It’s the prime necessity. The Mule spent the first five years of his rule in just that quest for information and failed – or so we have all been led to believe. But then he stopped looking. Why? Because he failed? Or because he succeeded?† â€Å"M†¦ more talk,† said Munn, bitterly. â€Å"How are we ever to know?† â€Å"If you’ll listen to me – The Mule’s capital was on Kalgan. Kalgan was not part of the Foundation’s commercial sphere of influence before the Mule and it is not part of it now. Kalgan is ruled, at the moment, by the man, Stettin, unless there’s another palace revolution by tomorrow. Stettin calls himself First Citizen and considers himself the successor of the Mule. If there is any tradition in that world, it rests with the super-humanity and greatness of the Mule – a tradition almost superstitious in intensity. As a result, the Mule’s old palace is maintained as a shrine. No unauthorized person may enter; nothing within has ever been touched.† â€Å"Well?† â€Å"Well, why is that so? At times like these, nothing happens without a reason. What if it is not superstition only that makes the Mule’s palace inviolate? What if the Second Foundation has so arranged matters? In short what if the results of the Mule’s five-year search are within-â€Å" â€Å"Oh, p†¦ poppycock.† â€Å"Why not?† demanded Anthor. â€Å"Throughout its history the Second Foundation has hidden itself and interfered in Galactic affairs in minimal fashion only. I know that to us it would seem more logical to destroy the Palace or, at the least, to remove the data. But you must consider the psychology of these master psychologists. They are Seldons; they are Mules and they work by indirection, through the mind. They would never destroy or remove when they could achieve their ends by creating a state of mind. Eh?† No immediate answer, and Anthor continued, â€Å"And you, Munn, are just the one to get the information we need.† â€Å"I?†*** It was an astounded yell. Munn looked from one to the other rapidly, â€Å"I can’t do such a thing. I’m no man of action; no hero of any teleview. I’m a librarian. If I can help you that way, all right, and I’ll risk the Second Foundation, but I’m not going out into space on any qu†¦ quixotic thing like that.† â€Å"Now, look,† said Anthor, patiently, â€Å"Dr. Darell and I have both agreed that you’re the man. It’s the only way to do it naturally. You say you’re a librarian. Fine! What is your main field of interest? Muliana! You already have the greatest collection of material on the Mule in the Galaxy. It is natural for you to want more; more natural for you than for anyone else. You could request entrance to the Kalgan Palace without arousing suspicion of ulterior motives. You might be refused but you would not be suspected. What’s more, you have a one-man cruiser. You’re known to have visited foreign planets during your annual vacation. You’ve even been on Kalgan before. Don’t you understand that you need only act as you always have?† â€Å"But I can’t just say, ‘W†¦ won’t you kindly let me in to your most sacred shrine, M†¦ Mr. First Citizen?’ â€Å" â€Å"Why not?† â€Å"Because, by the Galaxy, he won’t let me!† â€Å"All right, then. So he won’t Then you’ll come home and we’ll think of something else.† Munn looked about in helpless rebellion. He felt himself being talked into something he hated. No one offered to help him extricate himself. So in the end two decisions were made in Dr. Darell’s house. The first was a reluctant one of agreement on the part of Munn to take off into space as soon as his summer vacation began. The other was a highly unauthorized decision on the part of a thoroughly unofficial member of the gathering, made as she clicked off a sound-receiver and composed herself for a belated sleep. This second decision does not concern us just yet. How to cite Second Foundation 9. The Conspirators, Essay examples

Access Control and Network security Case Study

Question: Discuss about a Case Study for Access Control and Network security? Answer: Administrative network for any system stores several information regarding the business. In regard to the university administrative network it stores several information such as record of the employees, Record of Department Heads, Administrative computing records, information regarding internal audits, details of information security officers and record of any important system changes that happened recently (Abadie 2012). While considering a whole university system there might be several tables available. For example, university may maintain a dedicated table for their stuffs; they can maintain a table for the results of students and more. Data types are exemplified with the help of tables given below. Employee Name Date of Joining Salary Resume Picture Data type: Varchar Data type: Date Data type: Number Data type: BLOB Data type: BLOB Above is an example of a table that university administrative system stores within their network. Like explained for the name of the employee data type will be Varchar (20), for the image of the employee data type will be BLOB. Access control methods that are used for the administrative systems are public, sensitive, private and confidential. As the case is relating to a scenario, where I am a security manager of a company and I would have to come up with the solution for employees neglecting their security codes and passwords (Davidson 2012). To make the workers understand the necessity of using password the company should arrange a campaign or training session for some days. Again, some meeting sessions could be arranged to resolve the issue regarding the negligence of employees to using their passwords. Lastly, several policies could be developed to make the employees understand the necessity of using passwords. According to the questions, these concerns regarding the invasion of privacy by using biometrics are somehow justified, because we cannot trust all the vendors. Reputed vendors do store the inner structure of a humans eye to an internal chip of the device but we cant be assure about upcoming vendors who are coming up with such technologies. Another good example would be fingerprint scanner in Smartphone (Knapp et al. 2014). According to every vendor that uses a fingerprint scanner in their Smartphone, they store the scanned structure of the fingers inside the phone only through a chip, but we cannot trust some of the Chinese vendors that are recently coming up with such technologies. So one way or other it depends on the vendor or the manufacturer that uses the technology. As mentioned in the question the company is trying to settle a contract which involves working with the government, company should take necessary steps to make its employees understand that how much important it is to properly secure their accounts. If the employees does not properly secure their accounts then information can be hacked or an intruder from inside the system can access to the sensitive content (Liu 2014). Regarding the government contract that company is working for, it is very much necessary to maintain the privacy regarding the work. Network Security Perimeter Security Compiling an Infrastructure List According to the case study given in the question, there are 10 servers in the organization such as Web server, Mail server, FTP server, Real-time Communication server, Application server, Collaboration server, Telnet server, Open Source server and more. Functions of each servers are given below. Mail server: Mail server moves and store all the mails over the corporate networks. Web server: Web server helps to provide static content to a web browser. Application server: Fetches the real-time information required form the database servers to the end users. Communication server: Use to exchange information between the users present within the system. FTP server: Transfer files from server to client browser. Each server depend on their functionalities applies different level of security. There are four workstations present altogether. All the workstations are running UNIX operating system (Zhou 2012). Workstations are connected via wireless networks. As the company have several branches it uses Gateways for regulating network traffic between several networks. The company uses dissimilar network for every department so Gateways are used. Firewall at hardware level is implemented to regulate the network traffic. Through the firewall implementation, also the threats from the other networks are prevented. Other than Gateways, networking devices such as modems, bridges are used to maintain the networking data traffic. Network traffic allocation table TCP Port Number Service Yes No 20 FTP (Data Channel) YES 21 FTP (Control Channel) YES 23 Telnet YES 25 SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) YES 49 Login Host Protocol YES 80 HTTP (WWW) YES 110 POP3 ( Post Office Protocol Version 3) YES 119 NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) NO 137,138,139 NETBIOS name, NETBIOS, NETBIOS session NO 143 IMAP(Internet Message Access Protocol) YES 389 LDAP(Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) NO 443 SSL (Security socket Layer) NO 636 LDAPS(Lightweight Directory Access Protocol over TLS/SSL) NO Firewall Design According to the given case scenario, it is recommended that management implements firewall protection at different levels. For the administrative office, firewall at network level should be implemented. For the Students lab computer application layer firewall would be fine. For the e-mail servers firewall at proxy level should be implemented. Creation of a corporate connection There are several network security topologies present there such as Network Address Translation, Virtual Local Area Network, Tunneling and more (Iovation et al. 2015). Keeping in mind of the given scenario the company should choose the security topology wisely that the wholesaler cannot access the private information of the company but also can maintain a mutual access to keep the business running. So in this case Screened host Gateway topology should be used. References: Abadie, A., Diamond, A. and Hainmueller, J., 2012. Synthetic control methods for comparative case studies: Estimating the effect of Californias tobacco control program.Journal of the American Statistical Association. Davidson, J., 2012.An introduction to TCP/IP. Springer Science Business Media. Edwards, J. and Bramante, R., 2015.Networking self-teaching guide: OSI, TCP/IP, LANs, MANs, WANs, implementation, management, and maintenance. John Wiley Sons. Knapp, E.D. and Langill, J.T., 2014.Industrial Network Security: Securing critical infrastructure networks for smart grid, SCADA, and other Industrial Control Systems. Syngress. Liu, J., Xiao, Y. and Chen, C.P., 2012, June. Authentication and access control in the internet of things. In2012 32nd International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops(pp. 588-592). IEEE. Pierson, G. and DeHaan, J., Iovation, Inc., 2015.Network security and fraud detection system and method. U.S. Patent 9,203,837. Schneider, D., 2012. The state of network security.Network Security,2012(2), pp.14-20. Yang, K., Jia, X., Ren, K., Zhang, B. and Xie, R., 2013. DAC-MACS: effective data access control for multiauthority cloud storage systems.Information Forensics and Security, IEEE Transactions on,8(11), pp.1790-1801. Zhou, H., Wu, C., Jiang, M., Zhou, B., Gao, W., Pan, T. and Huang, M., 2015. Evolving defense mechanism for future network security.Communications Magazine, IEEE,53(4), pp.45-51.

An investigation of the factors affecting the output of a transformer Essay Example

An investigation of the factors affecting the output of a transformer Essay Transformers are used in everyday life. They work on the principle of Electromagnetic field induction. Current (electrons) has an electromagnetic field. This field can manipulate the field of magnets. Also the field of magnets can manipulate the field of electrons in a similar way to how magnets interact. Transformers work by using the fields to transfer energy through the field lines: Wire induces a magnetic field in the iron core. Iron core. The field lines Are cut causing We will write a custom essay sample on An investigation of the factors affecting the output of a transformer specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on An investigation of the factors affecting the output of a transformer specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on An investigation of the factors affecting the output of a transformer specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Wire an induced current. Causing a voltage in the first wire, causes a current. Around the current is a magnetic field, this induced a field in the iron core, the field lines of the core are then cut by a conductor (the second wire) and so a voltage is induced, in the reverse of how a voltage was induced in the transformer. In this way energy is transferred from electrical energy, to magnetic energy, back to electrical energy. The field lines must be continually moving in order to induce a current in the second coil (because a voltage is only induced when the field lines are being cut). The only way to do this is make the field lines change directions continually, in order to do that the electrons in the primary coil must be changing direction continually, and so we have to use alternating current. In order to make this more efficient the wires are coiled around the core. The point being that the more contact the wire is the more energy is put into the core and the more comes out, making the process more efficient. In theory the amount of energy going into the transformer should equal the amount of energy going out, no matter what the coil numbers but because of the nature of the coils and magnetic field lines, 100% efficiency is near impossible. Variables affect the system in many ways: The number of coils- There three general scenarios: Both primary and secondary coils are the same in number. In this case the more coils the more efficient the experiment, the increased coils mean that there is a larger, stronger field induced. These stronger fields are then cut by the increased number of coils, inducing more current, therefore making the whole process more efficient. The number of coils in the primary coil is greater than the number in the secondary. In this case because the electrons in the secondary coil are in less contact with the field lines they therefore receive less energy. However because all the energy must go through to the second coil and so the number of electrons (the current) increases. ( Power = current x time) So the voltage and current are inversely proportional. (see graph below) This is called a step down transformer because the voltage decreases. The number of coils in the secondary is greater than the number of coils in the primary. In this because the electrons in the secondary coil are in more contact with the field lines they therefore receive more energy. However because energy is constant the number of electrons (the current) decreases. ( Power = current x time) So the voltage and current are inversely proportional. (see graph below) This is called a step up transformer because the voltage increases despite the fact that the current decreases. voltage (v) Current (a) A graph to show the relationship between voltage and current. The distance between the coils. The further magnetic fields are from their source the weaker they are. If the coils are close together and close to the core then the lines dont have to go as far, therefore they are stronger. Therefore if the coils are closer together then they effect the core better and the core effects them better, resulting in a more efficient transformer. If they are further apart then energy is lost resulting in a less efficient transformer. Voltage in primary coil The higher the voltage the more energy an electron has, if the electrons have a higher energy then they have stronger fields, so they then cause stronger fields in the core, which causes a higher voltage in the secondary coil. The graph should look like this: Voltage in Primary coil Voltage in secondary coil. A graph to show the theoretical relationship between voltage in the primary and secondary coils. Method Apparatus 1. A power supply that allows the output voltage to be varied. 2. An iron core 3. Wires. 4. A ruler 5. Voltmeters 6. Crocodile clips 7. Insulation tape. 8. Wires for the coils 9. Wire strippers and clippers. Diagram: Primary coil Secondary coil Iron core I will set up the circuit as shown. I will use a power supply and connect it to the coil around the core, using crocodile clips and stripping the insulation from the ends of the core. I will have a voltmeter in parallel to the coil. The coil will be around an iron core. The core is basically an iron rod. There will be the secondary core further up along the rod, which will be attached using crocodile clips to a voltmeter. Using this set-up I can then vary the distance between the coils by using the ruler. The power supply will draw power form the mains. It will be set to AC for the reasons explained beforehand. I will vary the voltage by turning off the power supply and changing it, then turning it back on. I will vary the number of coils by turning the whole thing off and then removing or adding coils to either coil. For voltage I will use a voltage between 0 and 8 volts so as not to have any problems with heat. I will use nominal voltage jumps of 1V but because of the inefficiency of the power box they most probably wont be 1V. I will have 45 coils in the primary coil and keep that number fixed. But I will change the number of coils in the secondary coil in fixed jumps from 15 to 75. To keep the test fair I will: 1. Keep all variables constant except the one that I am changing. 2. Make sure the distance between the coils is 1CM at all times, if it is not being changed. 3. Keep the number of turns on the primary core the same. 4. I will use the same core throughout the whole experiment. 5. Allow the rod to cool if hot. 6. I will do repetitions to make sure that the result I have gotten is not a freak result. I think that this is a good way of doing the experiment because it is fair, and versatile. It is simple so there is less chance of something going wrong, More than one variable is being changed so there is more chance of a pattern emerging. The variables are easy to change. Safety 1. I will make sure the experiment is properly wired and that the wires are not touching, so as not to cause the power box to fuse. 2. I will determine a safe level of voltage in the preliminary and not go higher than it. 3. I will allow the experiment to cool if it is hot, so nothing has a chance of catching fire. 4. I will make sure there is no current going into the core by checking that no connectors are touching the core. 5. I will make sure there is no water present near the experiment to prevent an electric shock. 6. I will not touch the rod if it is hot (I will use the wire coating condition to see if it is hot) 7. I will keep the experiment away from anything flammable so as not to start a fire. 8. I will turn off the experiment if the wire coating melts or sparks appear. 9. I will make sure to turn off the power supply before changing the voltage so the power supply does not fuse. 10. I will turn the experiment off before changing the no of coils or the wire configuration, to prevent electric shock. I have chosen to vary the no of coils and the voltage in the primary coil. I plan to use a voltage range between 1 and 8 volts, which should give eight results, this ought to be enough to draw a conclusion. Also I want to vary the coil by having 45 turns in the first coil, but use varying turns in the secondary, starting at 15 turns and going up in jumps of 15 turns, to 75. This should give six results, which ought to be enough to determine a pattern. Based on the results of the preliminary, I think that the experiment will be very inefficient, but trends should show up in the results. Prediction I think that as voltage in the primary coil increases then the voltage in the secondary coil will increase and the increase will be directly proportionate: Voltage in Primary coil Voltage in secondary coil. A graph to show the theoretical relationship between voltage in the primary and secondary coils. This is because the higher the voltage the more energy an electron has, if the electrons have a higher energy then they have stronger fields. A higher voltage in the primary will cause stronger fields in the core, which causes a higher voltage in the secondary coil. And doubling the primary voltage should double the effect, therefore doubling the secondary voltage. I also think that there will be some loss in efficiency meaning that the transformer is about 80% efficient. 100% efficient results should look like this: Primary voltage (v) Secondary Voltage (v) No. of primary turns No. of secondary turns 1.00 1.00 30 30 2.00 2.00 30 30 3.00 3.00 30 30 4.00 4.00 30 30 5.00 5.00 30 30 6.00 6.00 30 30 7.00 7.00 30 30 A table showing the predicted relationship between voltage in the primary and secondary coils. Using this we can see that: So higher voltage input causes higher voltage output. Also I think that the ratio will have an effect on the secondary voltage: If both primary and secondary coils are the same in number: In this case the more coils the more efficient the experiment, the increased coils mean that there is a larger, stronger field induced. These stronger fields are then cut by the increased number of coils, inducing more current, therefore making the whole process more efficient. If the number of coils in the primary coil is greater than the number in the secondary: In this case because the electrons in the secondary coil are in less contact with the field lines they therefore receive less energy. However because all the energy must go through to the second coil and so the number of electrons (the current) increases. ( Power = current x time) So the voltage and current are inversely proportional. (see graph below) This is called a step down transformer because the voltage decreases. If the number of coils in the secondary is greater than the number of coils in the primary: In this because the electrons in the secondary coil are in more contact with the field lines they therefore receive more energy. However because energy is constant the number of electrons (the current) decreases. ( Power = current x time) So the voltage and current are inversely proportional. (see graph below) This is called a step up transformer because the voltage increases despite the fact that the current decreases. voltage (v) Current (a) A graph to show the relationship between voltage and current. A table to show the predicted relationship seen when the number of coils on the secondary changes. Primary voltage (v) No of turns in primary coil No. of turns in secondary coil Secondary voltage (v) 10.00 45 15 3.33 10.00 45 30 6.67 10.00 45 45 10.00 10.00 45 60 13.32 10.00 45 75 16.65 10.00 45 90 20.00 This works in that if you double the amount of time an electron influences the magnetic field or the field influences the electron you double the energy resulting in directly proportionate relationship between the number of turns in the secondary coil and the secondary voltage: No of coils in secondary Secondary voltage (v) Based on this I predict that : and that: secondary voltage x no of primary turns = primary voltage x no of secondary turns Preliminary I decided to do the preliminary experiment and investigate the variables before I decided what to investigate, as some variables may not have been worth investigating in depth. I used the method and set up described above except there were thirty turns in both coils. Distance between the coils (cm) Voltage in primary coil (v) Voltage in secondary coil (v) 0 (the coils were intertwined) 3 0.286 1 3 0.248 2 3 0.192 3 3 0.087 As you can see the voltage is highest when the coils are intertwined together, so the transformer is most efficient then. Based on this I decided to intertwine the coils in order to get the best voltage possible, however, because of time restraints I was easiest to keep the coils 1 cm apart. Primary voltage (nominally) Secondary voltage (v) 1 0.042 2 0.091 3 0.149 4 0.209 5 0.251 6 0.315 7 0.354 8 0.371 9 0.392 10 Reset switch popped 11 Reset switch popped 12 Reset switch popped 13 Reset switch popped 14 Reset switch popped 15 Reset switch popped 16 Reset switch popped 17 Did not attempt 18 Did not attempt 19 Did not attempt 20 Did not attempt The fuse tripped because too much current was drawn. So I decided to use current between 0 and 8. Obtaining evidence I had planned to do three repetitions of each experiment but I ended up with the same result anyway, so I decided not to waste time on it. Instead I decided to find the average of the different voltages, and use the averages to see how the ratio of turns affects the secondary voltage. Experiment No.of Primary coils No. of Secondary coils Ratio of coils Primary voltage (v) Secondary voltage (v) Secondary perfect voltage (v) Efficiency 1 45 15 3 to 1 0.67 0.048 0.223 21.568 1 45 15 3 to 1 0.67 0.048 0.223 21.568 1 45 15 3 to 1 0.67 0.048 0.223 21.568 2 45 15 3 to 1 1.17 0.083 0.391 21.137 2 45 15 3 to 1 1.17 0.083 0.391 21.137 2 45 15 3 to 1 1.17 0.083 0.391 21.137 3 45 15 3 to 1 1.96 0.149 0.653 22.828 3 45 15 3 to 1 1.96 0.149 0.653 22.828 3 45 15 3 to 1 1.96 0.149 0.653 22.828 4 45 15 3 to 1 2.98 0.214 0.992 21.572 4 45 15 3 to 1 2.98 0.214 0.992 21.572 4 45 15 3 to 1 2.98 0.214 0.992 21.572 5 45 15 3 to 1 3.69 0.345 1.230 28.044 5 45 15 3 to 1 3.69 0.345 1.230 28.044 5 45 15 3 to 1 3.69 0.345 1.230 28.044 6 45 15 3 to 1 4.43 0.472 1.476 31.970 6 45 15 3 to 1 4.43 0.472 1.476 31.970 6 45 15 3 to 1 4.43 0.472 1.476 31.970 7 45 15 3 to 1 5.05 0.496 1.683 29.444 7 45 15 3 to 1 5.05 0.496 1.683 29.444 7 45 15 3 to 1 5.05 0.496 1.683 29.444 8 45 15 3 to 1 5.65 0.509 1.885 27.030 8 45 15 3 to 1 5.65 0.509 1.885 27.030 8 45 15 3 to 1 5.65 0.509 1.885 27.030 Average 45 15 3 to 1 3.20 0.289 1.067 25.449 1 45 30 3 to 2 0.67 0.066 0.447 14.857 1 45 30 3 to 2 0.67 0.066 0.447 14.857 1 45 30 3 to 2 0.67 0.066 0.447 14.587 2 45 30 3 to 2 1.17 0.125 0.782 16.046 2 45 30 3 to 2 1.17 0.125 0.782 16.046 2 45 30 3 to 2 1.17 0.125 0.078 16.046 3 45 30 3 to 2 1.96 0.241 1.305 18.452 3 45 30 3 to 2 1.96 0.241 1.305 18.452 3 45 30 3 to 2 1.96 0.241 1.305 18.452 4 45 30 3 to 2 2.98 0.346 1.984 17.438 4 45 30 3 to 2 2.98 0.346 1.984 17.438 4 45 30 3 to 2 2.98 0.346 1.984 17.438 5 45 30 3 to 2 3.69 0.411 2.460 16.705 5 45 30 3 to 2 3.69 0.411 2.460 16.705 5 45 30 3 to 2 3.69 0.411 2.460 16.705 6 45 30 3 to 2 4.43 0.463 2.952 15.669 6 45 30 3 to 2 4.43 0.463 2.952 15.699 6 45 30 3 to 2 4.43 0.463 2.952 15.699 7 45 30 3 to 2 5.05 0.486 3.366 14.432 7 45 30 3 to 2 5.05 0.468 3.366 14.432 7 45 30 3 to 2 5.05 0.468 3.366 14.432 8 45 30 3 to 2 5.65 0.499 3.770 13.248 8 45 30 3 to 2 5.65 0.499 3.770 13.248 8 45 30 3 to 2 5.65 0.499 3.770 13.248 Average 45 30 3 to 2 3.20 0.330 2.133 15.856 1 45 45 1 to 1 0.61 0.079 0.610 12.959 1 45 45 1 to 1 1 45 45 1 to 1 2 45 45 1 to 1 1.07 0.126 1.068 11.793 2 45 45 1 to 1 2 45 45 1 to 1 3 45 45 1 to 1 1.78 0.238 1.783 13.326 3 45 45 1 to 1 3 45 45 1 to 1 4 45 45 1 to 1 2.71 0.352 2.710 12.993 4 45 45 1 to 1 4 45 45 1 to 1 5 45 45 1 to 1 3.36 0.418 3.360 12.447 5 45 45 1 to 1 5 45 45 1 to 1 6 45 45 1 to 1 4.03 0.497 4.032 12.322 6 45 45 1 to 1 6 45 45 1 to 1 7 45 45 1 to 1 4.60 0.522 4.597 11.349 7 45 45 1 to 1 7 45 45 1 to 1 8 45 45 1 to 1 5.15 0.536 5.148 10.418 8 45 45 1 to 1 8 45 45 1 to 1 Average 45 45 1 to 1 2.91 0.346 2.913 12.201 1 45 60 3 to 4 0.75 0.096 1.000 9.565 1 45 60 3 to 4 1 45 60 3 to 4 2 45 60 3 to 4 1.31 0.174 1.750 9.948 2 45 60 3 to 4 2 45 60 3 to 4 3 45 60 3 to 4 2.19 0.343 2.923 11.738 3 45 60 3 to 4 3 45 60 3 to 4 4 45 60 3 to 4 3.33 0.428 4.442 9.625 4 45 60 3 to 4 4 45 60 3 to 4 5 45 60 3 to 4 4.13 0.508 5.508 9.221 5 45 60 3 to 4 5 45 60 3 to 4 6 45 60 3 to 4 4.96 0.572 6.610 8.649 6 45 60 3 to 4 6 45 60 3 to 4 7 45 60 3 to 4 5.65 0.730 7.535 9.687 7 45 60 3 to 4 7 45 60 3 to 4 8 45 60 3 to 4 6.33 0.751 8.440 8.893 8 45 60 3 to 4 8 45 60 3 to 4 Average 45 60 3 to 4 3.58 0.450 4.776 9.666 1 45 75 3 to 5 0.58 0.099 0.967 10.204 1 45 75 3 to 5 1 45 75 3 to 5 2 45 75 3 to 5 1.02 0.154 1.692 9.082 2 45 75 3 to 5 2 45 75 3 to 5 3 45 75 3 to 5 1.70 0.262 2.825 9.263 3 45 75 3 to 5 3 45 75 3 to 5 4 45 75 3 to 5 2.58 0.388 4.294 9.032 4 45 75 3 to 5 4 45 75 3 to 5 5 45 75 3 to 5 3.19 0.457 5.325 8.580 5 45 75 3 to 5 5 45 75 3 to 5 6 45 75 3 to 5 3.83 0.514 6.390 8.048 6 45 75 3 to 5 6 45 75 3 to 5 7 45 75 3 to 5 4.37 0.579 7.284 7.943 7 45 75 3 to 5 7 45 75 3 to 5 8 45 75 3 to 5 4.89 0.611 8.158 7.491 8 45 75 3 to 5 8 45 75 3 to 5 Average 45 75 3 to 5 2.77 0.383 4.617 8.705 Analysis All anomalous results were circled on the graphs. All graphs were checked for direct proportion and if they were it was written in the bottom right corner, and the point, which it became untrue, was also written down. For example in the experiment of 45 coils to 45 coils, this was untrue at 3.4 V. Also if a string of results in a pattern was seen then a curve or line of best fit was drawn for them. As the results show that primary voltage and secondary voltage are directly, positively proportionate. As one doubles so does the other. E.G in the graph of 45 coils to 45 coils at 1 primary volt the secondary voltage was 0.13V and at 2 primary volts the secondary voltage was 2.6V, showing that if you double the primary voltage you double the secondary voltage. This is because the higher the voltage the more current, more current causes a stronger field in the core, these then get cut by the secondary coil more, resulting in the electrons induced having more energy (voltage). So higher voltage input causes higher voltage output. This is what I predicted. However the secondary voltage would be about 80% efficient, however it was much lower than this. The average efficiency overall was about 15%, a fraction to what I predicted. This is because much more energy was lost than I expected. The experiment works well up to a point but then the efficiency decreases and this is because the current limiting switch popped before the full current, and thus full voltage could be achieved. This caused the graph to slope off. Also the coil ratio and efficiency are inversely proportionate. This is because the higher the ratio the more inefficient the result. This is the opposite to what to I predicted. I think this is caused by the inefficiency of the experiment as a whole. I think that at higher coil ratios the factors that caused a loss of energy were amplified. Meaning that there was more energy lost due to the number of turns etc. No. of Primary coils No. of Secondary coils Primary voltage (v) Secondary voltage (v) Secondary perfect voltage (v) Vs = Vp x (Ns/Np) Efficiency 45 15 3.199 0.289 1.066 25.448 45 30 3.199 0.329 2.133 15.855 45 45 2.913 0.345 2.913 12.200 45 60 3.582 0.450 4.776 9.665 45 75 2.770 0.382 4.616 8.705 As you can see the efficiency was tiny and the secondary voltage never even came close to the perfect voltage. The reasons energy was lost were: 1. Resistance in the wire and increasing current. As the voltage increased so did the current to correspond with it. An increased current has more resistance (V/I = R) and coupled with the thin wire, lots of energy was lost to resistance. Most of this energy became heat and the heat was lost to the air and the coil. 2. Eddy currents occurred in the core. A current was induced in the core (because it is made of a conductor) the current had nowhere to go so it swirled in the core, in an eddie. 3. Flux leakages occurred. This basically means that not all the field lines were cut. This is because the coils didnt completely cover the core, so field lines were wasted. Also the ends of the core lost a lot of lines. So the energy was lost. A circular or doughnut shaped core would remedy this. 4. Also a humming sound was heard this was because of the iron core. In a magnet all the magnetic domains are in one direction, so the particle field lines are all in the same direction, causing one big field line set. Because an alternating current was used, the magnetic domains had to realign every 50th of a second; this caused them to scrape against each other. The friction caused by this caused heat to build up and caused the core to hum at a frequency of 50Hz (the same frequency of the mains) 5. The coil ratio was not a big a factor as predicted. This was because the coils did not cover the entire magnet so the field lines lost a lot of energy anyway. Also the more the coils the further the current has to move, causing more resistance. So the longer the coil the more energy was lost. This is why the coil ratio and the efficiency were inversely proportional. Evaluation The experiment worked quite well despite the low efficiency. It showed the trend and gave sufficient evidence for conclusions. The results were much more accurate than I expected and (excluding the anomalous results at the end) they rarely came off the line of best fit. All the results that did were circled. The method was quite good in theory but in practice fell somewhat, because the efficiency was tiny. The basic method of varying input and checking output is the only way of doing the experiment so it is by default the best. It was fairly good, but with adjustment could be much better. If I were to do the experiment again, I would: 1. Use a laminated core to keep the heat from leaking into the core. 2. Use a core that is circular, so no energy is lost in the ends of the core by uncut field lines. 3. Use thicker wire, so there is less resistance giving more efficiency. 4. Use more voltages to get more accurate results. 5. Use the coils intertwined instead of 1 cm apart, so as not to have any exposed core. 6. Use a pure core, or an alloy of magnetic metals. 7. Use more wires 8. Use more voltages, in order to get a more accurate mapping of the curve. 9. Use a fixed amount of current to get more accurate results 10. Check the amount of energy in joules going in and the amount coming out, in order to get a better idea of efficiency. 11. Use more numbers of coils 12. Use a power box with a dial so exact inputs can be checked 13. Have better heat insulation on the wires so energy is not lost 14. Have better connections that dont give as much resistance. The results were reliable enough for conclusions to be drawn but are not very reliable, even though they correlated well and the trend they show is solid. Because the trend is only visible up to about 3.5V (input) before it starts to fall in efficiency very dramatically. This was because the secondary current never reached its full potential, the current limiter always popped because too much current was being drawn. This was because each voltage corresponds to current and if there is resistance then more current is drawn. Other experiments I would like to do are: 1. A repeat of this experiment changing the coil ratios and the input voltages, keeping the number of turns on the primary coil constant. I predict the same result. But I would like to use more voltages, from 0V to 10V. 2. Investigating other metals like nickel, steel and copper as cores to see how they affect the experiment, I predict that the larger the atom the stronger the fields. 3. The separation of the coils, I predict that the larger the separation the more energy is lost. I want to see how these effect the experiment varying the distance from intertwined, to 10 cm. 4. Larger of smaller core. I predict that the larger the core the more efficient the output because of a larger amount of iron atoms, therefore more magnetic fields therefore more field lines, therefore more field lines cut.

The plight of a child Essay Example

The plight of a child Essay Example The plight of a child Essay The plight of a child Essay Helping Homeless Youth A. What is the problem? A. There are homeless youth without supervision on the streets of America b. They are abusing substances and that may be the cause of them being homeless c. Their family does not accept their lifestyle (LIGHT) B. What is being done to fix the problem? A. Shelters are being built specifically for them b. People are getting the word out c. Giving kids hope d. Foundations are being created C. What is not done? A. More shelters need to be built b. Awareness not raised enough c. Safety regulations need to be changed d. Acknowledgement of their accomplishment D. How can we/you help? A. Volunteer b. Be there for someone c. Give all that you can d. Help raise awareness Is it not to share your bread with the hungry and bring the homeless poor into your house; when you see the naked, to cover him, and not to hide yourself from your own flesh? (Isaiah 58:7) What is the problem? It is so easy to Just live your daily life without noticing the people you pass by on your way home from work. It is easy to Just turn the music up and keep your eyes forward but, how, at the same time, is it so hard? You cannot bear to look into the eyes of that a Day ten sloe AT ten street, out you cannot stop staring Into tenet soul. Many Kilos on the street can feel helpless, but they are not hopeless. A lack of guidance and ignorance cause these youth to be without shelter. While there are efforts to help the youth, there is still more that can be done and those who are concerned can help, There are many reasons that a child could be on the streets of America tonight. They could be on substances, their parents could have lost their Job and then their house, their parents might not accept their lifestyle, or a myriad of other reasons. In any case, they should be helped. We must be able to show Chrisms love to everyone, ND most of all, the homeless. Jesus replied, Foxes have holes and birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has no place to lay his head. (Matthew 8:20) Christ, himself, was homeless and he says to you who help the least of these because that is helping him. These homeless youth in the United States is estimated to be 1. 6 million, and that is one in every forty children (Mantra). One in forty-five of Americas future adults and leaders are on the streets hiding or begging for food. It is Just breath taking to think that that many children are on our streets while we are bundled up in our warm, cozy beds. The population of America has surged passed 300 million people, so that is . 53% of America. That may not seem like much, but that is still 1. 6 million people. Wicked it be easier to not look passed that if they were part of your family or someone you knew? Most of the kids are not looking for a handout either. They Just want help to get by, food to live, and a warm enough place to sleep. Many of these youth are homeless because of their parents. They do not accept the life-style that the youth wishes to lead. Even on the streets, their life-style might not be accept, which leads to homophobic violence. Almost half of Chicago homeless youth identify as LIGHT, Lesbian, Gay, Bi-sexual, Transgender, or Queer (Franco). I find it quite deplorable that parents will throw their child out on the street because they do not agree with them. How is that showing Chrisms love? Christ loved everyone, no matter the fault. So, why do we, as Christians, put labels on people and not help them because their sin is different than ours? Granted, not every parent that kicks out his or her child is Christian, but about 80% of America is Christian (Wonky). So, it is safe to assume that most of the parents tossing out their youth are Christian. In this recession, youth homelessness has increased incredibly. There are 28% more homeless youth now than there was in 2007. Chrisms followers should have heartache for these youth. Do not be slothful in zeal, be fervent in spirit, and serve the Lord. (Romans 12:11) . As Christians, we should not be apathetic to Gods word and these helpless youth. We are called to help in any way possible the poor. Christians should not let an opportunity to share Christ pass. Youth have a very acute ear when they are being helped. Some of these youth are with parents that cannot feed them. They do not get food often, maybe but once a day. Soup kitchens are increasing getting better at providing quality food, but they cannot provide for everyone (Rating). What is being done to fix the problem? Homeless youth are not helpless or hopeless. Some are getting the help they need, wanly Is amazing, out some are not. Many organizations are getting ten word out and are trying to help the best they can. Sadly, funding is a major issue. It is essential that these youth be helped. They, along with every other youth, are the future leaders of America. They can accomplish great things, with help. For instance, Isis, a reciprocity student became a contestant on Americas Next Top Model. Isis was kicked out on the street because her parents did not accept that she was a transgender. (Homeless) It is breath taking to think that Isis, with a little help, accomplished so much. In another instance of someone helping, the True Colors foundation is helping the LIGHT youth. The recently had a benefit concert and all the profits went straight to helping the youth. Because of their great strides and selflessness, enough money was raised to erect a 30-apartment residence for the LIGHT youth in New York. Peters) It is that kind of effort that pays off. The foundation put something to their minds and they got something done. These youth do not want a handout either. Some of them are self-sufficient and all they want is a safe place to lay their head. They try so hard to Just find a safe place to stay and they end up with the wrong person they picked up at a bar cuddling for a night and are out on the street then next morning. (Franco) Many do not agree with their lifestyle and that is okay, but Jesus loved the rich, poor, sick, well, the thief, and the tax collector. Who are some people to say that they are above loving someone because of their lifestyle? It is okay to disagree, but that does not mean a person should not do everything possible to help a person out, no matter their orientation. Most of these youth are Just trying to get by. They do not want a hand out, and do not want their hand held and guided along. The youth Just want a helping hand to get back on their feet. The reciprocity foundation takes this a step further though. They put these children in a situation that is comforting and productive. It is pitiful that a person who does not profess to be of any religion helps the LIGHT out more than most Christians would even think to do. Tara Banks partnered with the Reciprocity Foundation to create an episode of Americas Next Top Model to educate teens about youth homelessness. (Homeless) She used her show, which reaches millions every week, to educate teens. We are called to love all, even our enemies. While they should not be seen as enemies, the principle still applies. Love all, care for all, and help all. After reading this, you may feel compelled to help, and you may ask how can I help? Well, there are many shelters that are need your time and effort. Some shelters Hough, will require you to go throug h stringent tests and evaluations, but they are much needed for the safety of the children. (Franco) The leaders of the shelters Just want what is best for these misunderstood youth. Money is also a big help, and so can opening your home too youth. It may be difficult to take in someone, but Just think of the influence that you could have on that child. The youth you take in may feel helpless and hopeless, but you bringing them into a better environment might be what they need to change the world. To run a single bed with all the amenities needed to make the youth feel secure and safe is bout 40,000 dollars, but taking in a child for a year costs Just a fraction of that at 8,100 collars. (Franco) Effort is a huge thing. It is understandable, especially in the current economy, that you cannot give your money, but your time and effort will be welcomed with open arms. Many scrape every penny they can Just to keep their head above water, and they work two Jobs full time in order Just to put a piece of bread in their childs mouth. They do not have a lot of time to help others, but there is always time. For instance, my father works a full time Job and was going to college at the same mime, but he always found time to spend with me and to do other things necessary for himself and me such as grocery shopping. He maybe got 2-3 hours of sleep a night before he woke up and did the same exact thing again. He made the effort to do what was best for me. While this is not a perfect example because I was neither homeless nor in great need, he made the effort and squeezed as much time as he could out of his schedule to help someone else and you can do the same. It is not necessary to get 2-3 hours of sleep Just to help someone, but there are always days off that you can help instead of staying home and doing nothing. There is always holidays like Thanksgiving that you could work at a soup kitchen and give out a Thanksgiving meal. People are dedicating their lives to this cause of helping the homeless and even more so certain sects of the homeless population such as the LIGHT youth. Bambini Weevil is a prime example of this as she is an activist for gay rights. After a few years out of college, she started an organization called Out Impact to raise concerns when it comes to the LIGHT. She tries to do everything she can to help these youth because according to Weevil, Its important to me because we do need change in this entry, as well as accountability for all citizens, she says. L believe its important to have your voice heard and to speak up for those who feel powerless to do so, or cant. (Kay). As Christians, are we not supposed to fight for those who do not have a voice? We are to fight for the children, widowed, and others that are helpless. Should we disregard these youth because they are homeless or are LIGHT? No, of course we should not. We should treat them equally because we are all equal in the ey es of God. We all sin, Just because their sin is homosexuality does not mean they are worse than we are. In fact, it makes them Just like us, sinful.

Financial Sector in GCC Countries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Financial Sector in GCC Countries - Essay Example Nonetheless, current events indicate increasing cooperation among GCC countries on particular trade matters such as customs duties, quality standards, cross-member investment, and intellectual property right protection (USTR 179). An agreement for free trade among the six member countries in 1983 was one of the early achievements of the Gulf Cooperation Council. All of the six member countries were signatories to the United Economic Agreement which provides duty free access to all products manufactured in GCC member countries with compliance to existent origin and ownership laws (Al-Muharrami et.al. 5). With the aim of achieving goals for greater economic integration, member states agreed in 1999 to set external tariffs to a common range by 2005. In January 2003 the six GCC member states put up a Customs Union which in theory implies that member states are to adopt integrated customs laws and regulations, one point-of-entry, with open internal exchange of products and classification of products as national origin inside the GCC. Tariff application, income allocation and quality standards are some of the unresolved issues related to the bylaws of the Customs Union. The council was set to agree in 2005 on convergence criteria for adoption of a single currency in 2010 (USTR 179). Bahrain is one of the most diverse and active financial centers in the Gulf. Much of the financial sector's growth can be credited to the oil boom of the 1970s and the replacement of Beirut as a major banking hub during the 1980s. The financial sector is presently the biggest contributor to GDP at 27.6 per cent. Around 370 offshore banks and representative branches are established in Bahrain (IMF Country Report). . The Bahraini government is planning to draw more foreign banks to the area and is anticipating eliminating impending competition from Dubai and a return of Beirut. The government is assessing the structure that polices commercial banking sector of Bahrain in line with the above objectives. The government implemented new, fortified policies for the insurance sector in 2001 (USTR 33). The Bahrain Stock Exchange (BSE) started operation in 1989 with two responsibilities: playing as a securities controller with management of the capital market and functioning as a securities exchange. Foreign businessmen will be permitted to own 100 percent of listed banks within three years. The BSE has also introduced several information facilities to disseminate real-time values for all listed in real time through satellite TV (IMF Country Report). In July of 2000, the Ahli United Bank (AUB) was established by Bahrain's Al-Ahli Commercial Bank (ACB) and United Kingdom's United Bank of Kuwait (UBK) as an offshore banking unit. Trading began in August 2000 of shares of the AUB. The bank has a capital of $323.5 million which symbolizes an important development in the future of financial sectors in the region (USTR 33). Finance and Banking in Kuwait Kuwait has benefited from considerable budgetary surpluses starting from 1999. The budgetary surplus has risen to 40 per cent of GDP in 2005 and is projected to be in the rate of 43 per cent of GDP in 2006. This has been brought about by remarkably higher oil prices coupled with larger

International Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 7

International Relations - Essay Example The world community is quite skeptical of this stance taken by the regime as they see the program as a chance for the current regime to make a nuclear weapon. This situation would certainly cause a stir in the region due to the unstable relationship that Iran has with neighboring countries such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia and others (Bruno, Irans Nuclear Program, 2010). Iran’s nuclear program has caused a lot of hue and cry over the few years that it became common knowledge that Tehran was working on the program. Many resent the thought of Tehran having the potential of enriching nuclear material and using it either for energy purposes or for weapons as something unacceptable and dangerous. Even the Arab nations, though in the front portraying a show of support, are in the background somewhat skeptical of the program. In a meeting of the Gulf Cooperation Council in November of 2005 the leaders of several Arab nations, including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, made a statement inviting the world nations to prevent he program taking off. The Secretary General in a statement claimed that the program had no justification for it and it was for the better that the Middle East be a weapons free zone with regards to weapons of mass destruction (KHAITOUS, 2008). There are a number of clear cut reasons why there needs to be concern over Iran’s nuclear program over that of France and Great Britain. Those two nations have their nuclear program off the ground and have managed to secure their facilities, as best as one can in this current global situation. Iran’s nuclear facilities are still in the preliminary stages with respect to the other nuclear programs operating in the world. A major concern are the Muslim extremists in the nation who are a threat to the world security. There are serious doubts as to how safe the nuclear material will be in Iran and whether Muslim extremists can get their hands on

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles Reptiles are some of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some 300 million years ago. It is believed that the first species of snakes contained limbs which became more and more reduced through great periods of time, this phenomenon can be seen as a clear indicator just how evolution took place within a group of organisms. Today vestigial structures occur in certain serpent families such as Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they once possessed. Spurs which occur in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear example of vestigial structures that formed through time. Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the most important assemblage, as far as snakes are concerned. Squamates is a very diverse group of ectothermic (organisms that rely on their external environment to obtain the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and other processes crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of being elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders: Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards. The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 genera that consist of more than 2900 species. Snakes have one of the widest distributional ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the whole planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone there occurs 166 species and subspecies of snakes, 101 of these species have enlarged fangs to deliver venom of which only 15 are regarded as very dangerous and potentially fatal to man. This means that of all our snake species only 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The remainder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less than that found in bees and wasps. There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the lack of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the sense that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the body of the animal thus supposedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper jaw bones arent united/interconnected at snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw bones to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large prey items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic a nd serves as the binding factor between the jaws. Snakes fulfill a crucial role/function in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating rodent numbers and are good indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is being done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is being conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous system to mention but a few. Such is the complexity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind. Evolution that took place within the Class Reptilia Reptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians called Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no longer than chickens. (Carr,1963) Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified skin that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to move more easily on land, and an improved circulatory system ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals. In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic decline during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which altered a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same four have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (cro codilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not common until the late Cretaceous times about 65 million years ago. In order to classify snakes or other organisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2) Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no direct link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of different snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more new species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae (front fixed fang snakes generally cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a brightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp. This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive. Distinguising features of the suborder Ophidia All snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms. Snakes poses a forked tongue which can be retracted into a sheath (Figure 2.1) All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for locomotion and maintaining body shape. The lower jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw. Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake. The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung. Unlike lizards the tail cannot be regenerated. All snakes shed their skin. All snakes hatch from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs hatch outside the females body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live young). Classification of snakes Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Ophidia (Serpentes) Infraorders: -Alethinophidia -Scolecophidia The classification of snakes are based on different morphological structures The general morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the presence or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microscopic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes. The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very prominent in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent altogether in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its normal function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont get lost and can still be carried over through copulation with females. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carr ied through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males usually have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipenes of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur. Biology Hearing and Vision Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprising to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bus h except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, instead they possess a fixed transparent shield which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing. Sense of smell For this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered; picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly the same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite a few prey items such as: rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first. Shedding Shedding of skin depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into hiding during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. Cold Blooded (Ectothermic) and Hibernation All members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature (ÂÂ ± 30Â °C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This method demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the e nvironment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protection against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices. Reproduction Sexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will determine how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes several males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate. All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once mating has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again. Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands secrete a substance which surrounds the egg. The length of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months. As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous). Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of circumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs laid vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night. In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting of a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to slit open the eggshell thus freeing itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth. Egg mortality is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. Movement (Locomotion Speed) The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts it is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis. There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakes: Sepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go. Caterpillar These are usually heavy bodied snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward. Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst pushing forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth braches of trees. Snakes that make use of this type of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus. Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving. Scales Most people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes. Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale counts: Head scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking note of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is present. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose. Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloaca Subcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conical tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. Internal Anatomy of Snakes A snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feeding habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The concept is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the learning center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth. Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed. Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated behind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which excrete nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and a nal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a short distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed. Venom There is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essence venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes. In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are totally different entities. Venom has to be injected (circulatory system) Poison has to be ingested (swallowed) The functions of venom are numerous: Prevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion. Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured. Digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion. Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may contract from prey. As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened. There are three types of snake venom: Neurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae). Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.) Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae). Fangs (Dentition) All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower